Technology

Figure 1. Mechatronics Transdisciplinary Approach

Mechatronics is the transdisciplinary study of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, software engineering and control systems.[1] The concept emerged in the Japanese electronics industry in the late 1960's and since has been adopted as an approach to product design and manufacturing throughout Asia and much of Western Europe.

Two examples of mechatronic integration:

To boost engine efficiency, the Boeing 7E7 will replace gear-driven hydraulic pumps for controls and landing gear with electrical systems. Such fundamental changes in air platform design will require new and additional skills among those who service aircraft.

"Drive by wire" is another example of how mechanical systems are being replaced by electrical systems in passenger vehicles. The 2005 Toyota Prius is the most well known example of electronic throttle, transmission, and braking control. Passenger cars from European and Japanese auto makers will also incorporate automatic parking assistance in 2007 models.

As hardware, equipment, transport, machinery and appliances evolve to incorporate more diverse, sophisticated and converged technologies, the skills required to build, maintain and repair these technological systems must match their increasing complexity.

Jobs

Many existing job categories currently or will soon require mechatronics skills and problem solving abilities among workers who currently manufacture, service and repair a wide array of equipment. Mechatronics technicians are involved in robotics, automated manufacturing and packaging, automobiles, airplanes, gas pumps, vending, gaming, ATM machines, heating and cooling systems and medical monitors. There are no Texas labor market data specific to mechatronics; however, we have identified 25 professions that do or will soon require mechatronics skill sets. These positions include appliance, equipment, and engine repairs and maintenance and mechanical, electrical and industrial engineering technicians. The overall job growth rate for these positions from 2002 to 2012 ranges between 5% and 31% with an average growth rate of 15%. The average annual job opening due to growth and replacement is 18,435. Over time we expect more and more of these positions to require mechatronics skills.

Skill Sets

Mechatronics typically combines electronics, mechanics, pneumatics and hydraulics as applied to robotics and automation.[2] Most skills are employed in advanced manufacturing, advanced packaging, and equipment and vehicle repair and maintenance. Mechatronics does not map to any particular trade or job category; rather, it refers to a host of integrated skills that can be applied in a variety of job contexts. We recommend further study of the diversity of jobs that do or may require mechatronics skills, the particular knowledge, skills and abilities of specific jobs or job categories and the actual needs of Texas employers.

Trends

Although not a new concept, the U.S. has been slow to adapt mechatronics approaches in both industry and workforce development. Mechatronics as a discipline or transdiscipline did not exist in U.S. institutions prior to the mid-1990s. However, due to growing demand for workers with transdisciplinary skills-at all post secondary levels-several U.S. community colleges and universities have incorporated mechatronics into existing curricula, added thematic programs and even developed freestanding mechatronics curricula (see relevance below).

Another indicator of the advance of mechatronics in the U.S. is the level of research funding for research projects related to the field. Table 1 lists a number of projects and funding levels for National Science Foundation research specifically related to mechatronics. While still at relatively moderate levels, clearly mechatronics is gaining the attention of researchers. As with other technology-related advances such as biotech, research funding is frequently a precursor of economic growth and job growth potential.

Timing

As evidenced below in the Relevance section below, clearly several community and technical colleges believe now is the time to develop and offer mechatronics programs.

Relevance

Worldwide mechatronics programs have been developed at the high school, certificate/technician, undergraduate and graduate level since the 1970s and 1980s but mechatronics programs have been slow to catch on in the U.S.. However, there is recent evidence that U.S. community and technical colleges as well as institutions offering four-year and advanced degrees are adapting their engineering programs to meet a growing demand for skilled workers with integrated skill sets. A sampling of such programs includes:

Sierra College. Sierra College, a community college serving the Sacramento, California area, inaugurated in January 2006 certificate and AA mechatronics program. The new program is supported by $1.2 million in state grants and matching grants from local industry. Program developed as a result of identified shortage of skilled technicians to design, operate and maintain equipment that integrates electronics, mechanics, pneumatics, hydraulics and computer programming.

Nebraska Mechatronics Education Center. Nebraska Mechatronics Education Center is a collaborative effort among six Nebraska community colleges, three four-year universities, government agencies and Nebraska businesses. The Center will prepare new and incumbent workers in advanced manufacturing. The Center is supported by a $3 million in grants, approximately half from the Central Community College system and half from local employers.

Alexandria Technical College. Alexandria Technical College in Alexandria, Minnesota is currently developing a program in advance packaging technologies and is partnering with local industry and European institutions to transfer the mechatronics education model to Minnesota.

Clinton Community College. Clinton Community College, Clinton, Iowa, offers a diploma for mechatronics technician and an associate degree in mechatronics technology. The program is supported by a $366,000 state grant.

Suffolk County Community College. Suffolk County Community College, Long Island, New York, will soon inaugurate a Mechatronics Education Center, funded by a $2.38M grant from the U.S. Department of Labor. The focus of the Center will be on training workers in advanced manufacturing.

Four-year and Graduate Institutions

Multiple U.S. universities have one to four course sequences in mechatronics at the undergraduate and graduate level and some have mechatronics training labs. These universities include Cal Tech, Georgia Tech, Idaho State, Iowa State, Kettering University, MIT, Minnesota State, North Carolina State University, Ohio State, Pennsylvania State, Purdue, Rensellear, San Jose State, Stanford, UC Berkeley, University of Missouri, University of Utah, University of Washington,[4] Texas A&M, and Northwestern.

There are currently no mechatronics curricula at the community and technical colleges in Texas. However many current community and technical college offerings could be integrated into a mechatronics thematic program with the addition of mechatronics-specific courses. For example, Sierra College offers certificates, associates and transfer programs in mechatronics as an option under their Computer Integrated Electronics program.[5] The following are required mechatronics courses within the Sierra College program:

[1] http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:MechatronicsDiagram.svg

[2] Sierra College. fundamentals of mechatronics. www.realskillsrealjobs.com/ClassDetails.php?class_id=4

[3] Excludes restricted award information for proprietary and defense-related activities.

[4] Giurgiutiu, V., A. E. Bayoumi, G. Nall. (2002)  Mechatronics and smart structures: emerging engineering disciplines for the third millennium. Mechatronics. 12: 169-181.

[5] www.realskillsrealjobs.com/Classes.php

Technology

Figure 1. Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) Source: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Nuclear power is generated by fissioning or splitting atoms within a reactors' coil to boil water and turn steam turbines which produce electricity (Figure 1). Nuclear energy was first harnessed for power in 1951 and as of this publication, there are 103 commercial nuclear power plants producing electricity in the United States at 64 sites in 31 states. There are also 130 new reactors under construction or consideration around the world.[1]

There are four nuclear reactors at two sites in Texas: Comanche Peak 1 & 2 in Glen Rose and South Texas 1 & 2 in Bay City (Figures 2 and 3).

Figure 2. Comanche Peak Nuclear Power Plant	Figure 3. South Texas Nuclear Power Plant
Both of these sites operate pressurized light-water reactors (PWRs).

In addition to these commercial reactors, there are 36 licensed research and test reactor sites located around the U.S.. Two research reactors are located in College Station at Texas A&M and another at Pickle Research Campus at the University of Texas at Austin where they began teaching nuclear reactor operation and maintenance in 1957.

Several new reactor designs have been approved by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC): System 80+ by Westinghouse BNFL; ABWR by General Electric, Toshiba, Hitachi, and AP600 also by Westinghouse BNFL. Each of these new reactor designs employ significant design improvements and innovations that increase safety, reduce waste materials, improve containment systems or reduce construction and operational costs among other benefits. For example, the AP600 is a "passive" nuclear power reactor that "relies on natural forces like convection and gravity flow of emergency cooling water, reducing or minimizing reliance on pumps, valves, emergency diesel generators and other components."[2]

While nuclear reactors do not produce any greenhouse gases, they do produce highly radioactive spent fuel rods and other radioactive waste which must be stored and isolated from ecosystems and human contact for long periods of time.[3] The majority of this waste is currently stored at each reactor site-more than 1,500 metric tons[4] at Comanche Peak and South Texas Project in water-filled vaults. There appears to be a general consensus that these materials will eventually be transported to the radioactive waste depository at Yucca Mountain located 100 miles north of Las Vegas and this will require a significant number of properly trained and certified nuclear technicians.

Jobs

According to NEI industry surveys conducted in 2004 and 2005, the nuclear industry is facing a critical shortage of workers over the next five years.[5] The survey found that nuclear energy companies may lose an estimated 23,000 workers over the next five years, representing 40 percent of all jobs in the sector. Nearly half of industry employees were found to be over 47 years old and only 8 percent were younger than 32.

Maintenance outage technicians. In particular, the survey indicated a growing demand for technicians to support plants during scheduled maintenance outages.

Radiation protection professionals. According to a 2004 study released by the Health Physics Society, the demand for radiation protection professionals is approximately 130 percent of supply and this gap is projected to double in the next ten years.

Shortages are also projected for nuclear engineers; however, enrollment in nuclear engineering programs has jumped from 500 in 1998 to 1,800 in 2005 (see footnote 5).

Table 1 shows the hourly wage and projected need from 2002 to 2012 for applicable nuclear technician positions. Based on these projections, an estimated 4,200 positions will need to be filled throughout the U.S. over the next seven years.

Table 1. Labor Market Projections

Source: O*NET

Texas Labor Market Information projections show 15 openings per year due to replacement and 2 due to growth for nuclear power reactor operator (SOC 51-8011) at $30.73 per hour. Nuclear technicians (SOC 19-4051) are projected to add 13 positions per year due to replacement and none due to growth at $31.33 per hour.

This LMI data obviously conflicts with recent industry survey data referenced throughout this brief. Further analysis is needed to reconcile these differences in order to make informed planning decisions.

While the DOE has projected several new nuclear power plants will be constructed in the U.S. by 2025, facilities can take ten years to complete applications, construction and testing before operational. New employment and subsequent training requirements generated by new builds will, therefore, be inherently obvious to any regional planner.

Skill Sets

Nuclear power technicians include equipment operation technicians, monitoring technicians and reactor operators. Areas of knowledge include physics, mathematics, chemistry, public safety and security, teaching and learning principles, telecommunications, engineering, computers and electronics. Skills include science, mathematics, operation monitoring and control, coordination, speaking, judgment and decision making, reading comprehension and critical thinking. Abilities include problem sensitivity, control precision, near vision, oral expression, speech clarity, inductive reasoning, number facility and written comprehension. According to the NEI, the "training of skilled technicians and craft personnel, such as operators, electricians, pipefitters and other maintenance workers, is essential to sustain the highly qualified work force needed to continue efficient, reliable electricity production." (see footnote 5)

Trends

Figure 4. Nuclear Power Generation in Texas, 1990 through 2004 (Million kilowatt hours) Source: EIA-906, Power Plant Report and predecessor forms

According to industry reports, significant job growth is projected primarily within existing facilities due to a high degree of anticipated attrition and a lack of existing training. However, these projections are not supported by existing LMI data and additional research is necessary to qualify employment trends.

New innovative safety features have advanced nuclear reactor designs in recent years and indicate renewed interest and investment in building new nuclear reactors in the U.S. Nine advanced reactor designs are being considered in the U.S., three have obtained NRC safety certification, one design is in final stages of certification and five are in pre-application review.[6]

New legislation has streamlined the application process for new nuclear reactors and should reduce costly delays. In addition, the DOE has revised previous 2025 projections and now anticipates the construction of several new nuclear power facilities to meet growing electricity demands.

Texas produced a new State record for nuclear power output in 2004, exceeding 40 billion kilowatt hours.

Timing

Industry projections clearly state an urgent need for new nuclear technician curriculum; however, LMI data does not support these projections and additional research is needed before a conclusive analysis can be made.

The DOE awarded $24 million to 37 universities in 2005 to develop technical specialists in nuclear power generation, (see footnote 5) signaling an increasing awareness of workforce shortages within the nuclear power industry.

Relevance

Nuclear technician training is highly relevant to community and technical colleges. Twenty-four WECM courses are listed under the rubric NUCP, CIP 41.0205 (nuclear/nuclear power technology/technician).

Table3. WECM NUCP Courses

Source: Workforce Education Course Manual, 2005-2006

Two applicable courses are also listed under rubric IRAD and CIP 41.0204..

Table 4. WECM IRAD Courses

Source: Workforce Education Course Manual, 2005-2006

Additional research is necessary to determine if these existing courses and related programs are sufficient in quantity, graduation rates and relevancy to meet qualified projected workforce demands.

[1] Samuel Bodman, U.S. Energy Secretary, Platts Nuclear Energy Conference, February 13, 2006.

[2] Nuclear Energy Institute, "Passive" Nuclear Power Plants: Smaller, simpler AP600

[3] National Energy Policy, National Energy Policy Development Group, May 2001

[4] NEI, U.S. State by State Commercial Nuclear Used Fuel

[5] NEI, Nuclear Energy Industry Initiatives Target Looking Shortage of Skilled Workers, February 2006

[6] NEI, Nuclear Statistics, New Nuclear Power Plants www.nei.org/index.asp?catnum=2&catid=344

Technology

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the science of making intelligent machines and addresses the challenges of having machines find solutions to complex problems in a human-like fashion. The field of AI, like the careers it produces, is diverse, fragmented and difficult to identify comprehensively. This fragmentation is due in part to the absence of a unifying theory for AI. The field is governed by multiple theories of the way humans think and the best way to represent this process in an intelligent system. As a consequence, there are multiple approaches, tools and contexts in which they are applied.

An intelligent system deals with real world environments where often only imprecise and incomplete information is available. These systems can be applied in a number of fields including military applications such as target identification, in entertainment such as digital games and robotic pets and in business where banks, hospitals, and insurance companies and other organizations that collect vast amounts of data, use AI to predict consumer behavior.

Jobs

All job categories in information technology and computer science are potentially open to students with AI backgrounds. Job titles include systems analyst, systems programmer, systems designer and software developer. Information technology and computer science professionals with AI backgrounds are especially sought by companies that develop operating systems, expert systems, telecommunication systems and control systems.

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, 67% of computer programmers held a college or higher degree in 2004.[1] A review of online job sites revealed that job openings that specify artificial intelligence backgrounds overwhelmingly require advanced graduate training, frequently at the doctoral level. In one job posting, a Ph.D. in an AI related field was considered the equivalent of ten years of post-masters degree experience.

Due to the education requirements and high degree of specialization, AI-related jobs are well compensated with salaries for senior developers ranging from $90,000 to $200,000. Entry level AI programmers with four-year degrees start at $50,000 and reach $70,000 to $80,000 after a couple of years.

AI jobs cover a number of fields but entry-level tasks in any given field may include equipment programming, product testing, execution of technical projects, recordkeeping, research, engineering tasks, information management and development of software programs.

Skill Sets

Knowledge - The principle knowledge of an AI professional is an understanding of how humans learn, structure and use knowledge including:

• Knowledge representation in terms of the design of data structures and their semantic interpretation.
• Knowledge inference in terms of how data is used to solve problems in appropriately identifying alternative solutions and problem solving solutions.
• Knowledge acquisition in terms to transforming tacit human knowledge into a codified form.

Skills - The applications for AI knowledge are diverse but the general areas in which AI professionals are skilled fall into a few general categories:

Abilities - Designing and installing AI systems or AI components of information systems. Analyze potential application to determine if AI system could fulfill a purpose and how that purpose can best be achieved. Design AI components of information system to a given specification. Good communication skills, ability to work within a team, problem solving skills and to keep up with a rapidly evolving field through independent study. Military and defense-related positions frequently require security clearance.

Trends and Timing

AI used to be solely the purview of Ph.Ds. As the field of AI continues to evolve and formalize barriers to entry are reduced. Jobs are increasingly available to candidates with four-year degrees. When advances in AI will lead to job opportunities requiring less formal education is uncertain.

Relevance

In December 2005, Pellissippi State Technical Community College, Knoxville, Tennessee, inaugurated an introduction to artificial intelligence course as part of its computer science curriculum. The course covers robotics, neural networks and evolutionary hardware. The rational for offering the course is that "Today´s computer programmers will likely become the neural network technicians of the future."^[2]

Big Bend Community College, Moses Lake, Washington, offers a course in artificial intelligence as part of its computer science curriculum; however, it is only mentioned in the context of guiding students who wish to transfer to four-year institutions to receive bachelors degrees. The suggested computer science courses for students interested in certificates or two-year degrees do not include artificial intelligence explicitly.

Texas State Technical College Waco and Harlingen campuses offer two courses in artificial intelligence programming as part of the gaming and simulation specialization in computer science. According to the WECM, course goals are "knowledge representation and interference techniques, expert systems, pathfinding algorithms and search techniques for problem solving."

AI has a very limited presence in community college curricula. However, there are approximately 120 universities in North America that have AI research programs and associated curricula.

TECHNOLOGY

Crime Scene Technicians (CST) are essentially functional generalists who collect and maintain physical evidence from crime scenes. The technology of crime scene investigation is very advanced; however, the technology (hardware, software and forensic analysis) is located in the "Forensics Laboratory" rather than in the field. Field technology is generally photographic equipment (and video) and specimen collection. Field technology is a combination of specific techniques for locating evidence, collecting evidence, preserving evidence, maintaining the custody of evidence and in some cases analyzing evidence. Technology advancements using "telerobotics" for "teleforensics" are on the horizon. For example, the El Paso Police Department is using CSTs, robotics and video surveillance to avoid contamination of the crime scene and to enable remote experts to view crime scenes and provide advice to CSTs for the collection of crime scene evidence.[1] In the past two decades, crime scene technology has not advanced as much as lab technology. Lab advancements in chemistry and biology have resulted in new methods of DNA analysis, trace evidence analysis and toxicology.[2]

Field technologies involve specialized techniques which are dependent on human knowledge, skill and training applicable to CTCs in some Texas regions. CST technology revolves around photographic equipment and specimen collection (fingerprint, hair, finger nails, fluids, etc.) Advanced technology and analysis tends to be associated with highly specialized forensics scientists who work in forensics laboratories rather than with CST discipline.

JOBS

"Crime Scene Technicians or Technologists (CST) provides support services to all aspects of crime scene investigation including processing, photographing, collecting and maintaining evidence, testifying in court and preparing investigative reports."[3] A major aspect of CST responsibilities involves establishing and maintaining records to ensure proper chain of custody of physical evidence.

CSTs can be employed by Local, State and Federal law enforcement agencies, Public Defenders' Offices, Medical Examiners' Offices, law firms and private industry;[4] however, law enforcement is the single largest employer. According to David Brumfield approximately 50% of the Crime Scene Technology graduates of the Southeastern Public Safety Institute in Florida go on to "civilian" jobs in law enforcement and 50% work in related fields but not directly for law enforcement.[5] Brumfield also indicates that Florida may soon face an over capacity of CST certified professionals due to the popularity of CSI-type TV shows and the resulting explosion of interest in the field over the past six years.

The employment need of Texas law enforcement and other domains is undetermined. Texas law enforcement agencies have different policies related to educational requirements for CSTs and different policies related to whether the duties can be performed by civilians or not. For example, the San Antonio Police Department allows civilians to be CSTs; however, they require a Bachelors Degree (in any discipline, but preferably a Forensics or Science Degree).[6] The Houston Police Department (HPD) requires police officers to collect physical evidence and to maintain the chain of custody;[7] however, HPD only allows "expert civilians" from the Forensics Laboratory to assist when needed.[8] HPD requires Forensics Technicians to have a Bachelors Degree (minimum).

CST in Texas is characterized by low to moderate growth projected, little positive strategic growth projected for this position and much uncertainty associated with professional qualifications required by CSTs across Texas cities and counties. Watch for new regulations, state policy changes and especially emergence of state-wide certification and accreditation standards.

TRENDS

• Much variation from state-to-state, county-to-county and city-to-city related to credentials required for CSTs. Some states have flip-flopped on policy related to whether civilians can do this work three times in the past ten years. (see footnote 5 and 6)
• In the past 10 years, Texas has flip-flopped between policy requiring police officers to perform CSTs duties and allowing civilians to perform CST duties. As a result, some law enforcement entities maintain a balance of both law enforcement and civilian personnel to perform these duties (as is the case in San Antonio) (see footnote 6) or they simply require law enforcement personnel and make no allowance for civilians except when highly specialized expertise is required from the Forensics Laboratory (as is the case in Houston). (see footnote 8)
• Employment concentration of CSTs in Texas is in Houston, Dallas-Ft. Worth, San Antonio and Austin.
• Most training for CSTs in Texas is handled by police departments and is accredited by the Texas Commission on law enforcement Standards and Education. (see footnote 6)
• CSI TV shows have created a boom for the position in places such as Florida where approximately 90% of the CSTs are female. (see footnote 5)

CSTs will be needed as long as there is crime; however, the fluctuating policy on whether this position is open to civilians limits the growth of the field for civilians (especially in Texas). Law enforcement entities may be good partners for specialized certificates for law enforcement officers or candidates; however, further investigation is required.

TIMING

Preliminary analysis indicates that timing is not good for a broad study of the technology and workforce demand related to CST. However, localized demand should be investigated on a city-by-city basis by community and technical college (CTC) faculty or staff (especially in Texas' large MSAs). Furthermore, a request should be made to the Texas Workforce Commission to track this position in the Labor Market Indices separate and distinct from law enforcement and forensics jobs.

RELEVANCE

The relevance of CSTs to CTCs is moderate and functionally dependent on 1) the geographic location of the CTC, 2) policy determining whether the position is open to civilians, 3) policy of educational attainment required for the position and 4) policy determining who certifies Law Enforcement Officers to be CTCs. There are two CTC certificates in Houston at San Jacinto College (Central and North campus) primarily motivated by the need for a Forensics transfer program to a Master's Degree at Sam Houston State College.[9] The two certificates are:[10]

San Jacinto College District -- Central Campus CRIMINAL JUSTICE/POLICE SCIENCE - 43.0107 Certificate of Technology Specialty - Criminal Justice Crime Scene Technician Sept. 1, 2003. 2 semester program. Robyn Ring, 281-476-1873.

San Jacinto College District -- North Campus CRIMINAL JUSTICE/POLICE SCIENCE - 43.0107 Crime Scene Technician Specialty. Sept. 1, 2003. William Edison, 281-998-6150 x7346.

SKILL SETS

Specific Duties, Knowledge, Skills and Abilities include: Duties - photographs crime and accident scenes using highly-skilled photographic and evidence-gathering techniques; identifies, collects and secures physical evidence including: blood, body fluids, hair, fibers and firearms for laboratory testing and use as evidence in criminal prosecutions; searches for and develops latent prints at crime scenes; photographs and fingerprints suspects, victims (including deceased individuals), witnesses and applicants; produces castings of footprints, tire tracks and other impressions; and testifies in court; [11] Knowledge - A working knowledge of all basic tenets in crime scene technology encompassed in the phases of crime scene search, recording, evidence gathering, packaging of evidence and courtroom testimony; Skills - Basic skills in English, Math, Science and Speech; Abilities - Because of the confidential, sensitive nature of work required, potential employers may require some or all of the following criteria as part of their employment process: physical agility, background investigations, drug screening, oral board interview, polygraph and/or voice stress analysis, physical examination and U.S. Citizenship.[12] CSTs may also be required to qualify to use protective respirator equipment. CST work requires exposure to hazardous chemicals and evidence that may be biohazardous or carcinogenic. (see footnote 3)

Transportability: Civilian CTCs are functionally generalists. CTC skills are applicable to other specialized positions if the CST pursues continuing education, specialized certification and/or an advanced University Degree (Bachelors, Masters and/ PhD). With advanced education and certification, opportunities for advancement include positions such as Fingerprint Classification Specialist, Crime Lab Assistant, Investigator, Consultant, Juvenile Assessment Worker, Latent Print Examiner/Trainee, Fire Inspector/Investigator, Forensic Science Specialist and Property and Evidence Personnel; however, this type of advancement from CST to positions requiring advanced education are limited and rare. (see footnote 2) Opportunities for advancement are also available for "the field" as opposed to laboratory positions - typically involving a pathway toward certification as a law enforcement Officer and at the far-end of the spectrum as a Detective (cross-over from civilian CST to classified law enforcement is also rare). Advancement opportunities are dependent on the CSTs ability to be certified as a law enforcement Officer or to gain an advanced scientific and/or technological certification and/or degree. The CST position could be a gateway position; however, policy, culture and systemic transformation within law enforcement are required.

Technology

Figure 1. U.S. Net Imports of Natural Gas, 1960-2030 (trillion cubic feet) Source: EIA, Annual Energy Outlook 2006

Simply put, liquefied natural gas (LNG) is natural gas in liquid form. Natural gas is chilled to -259 degrees Fahrenheit in a process called liquefication and is condensed into a colorless, odorless, non-corrosive and non-toxic liquid. The energy density denser liquid form enables large amounts of natural gas to be stored or transported long distances. While LNG technology has existed for some time, rising costs and consumption of petroleum supplies has made natural gas an increasingly popular form of energy and because about 96% of the world's proven natural gas supplies are outside of North America,[1] LNG imports are on the rise and projected to increase significantly over the coming years (Figure 1).

Jobs

The number of LNG technicians required in Texas within the next three to five years appears to be relatively low.

There are currently four LNG terminals in the United States and two new facilities under construction: the Cheniere Energy terminals in Freeport, Texas and Cameron Parish, Louisiana.[2] According to William McAled, "by 2010 it is likely that only five LNG facilities will be built - with only seven being built in the foreseeable future."[3]

As much as 60% of projected new LNG imports will be handled by the four existing terminals. Expansions are planned at three of the four existing terminals, including a proposed expansion of 0.8 billion cubic feet per day at Cove Point, Maryland, and approved expansions of 1.1 billion cubic feet per day at Lake Charles, Louisiana, and 0.54 billion cubic feet per day at Elba Island, Georgia. (see footnote 2)

While the number of regasification facilities and LNG imports is projected to increase in the coming years, the actual number of LNG technicians required for these facilities is anticipated to be low due to the high degree of process automation typically involved in offloading and regasification.

Skill Sets

LNG technicians are employed by gas and pipeline companies as well as electric utilities to maintain and operate liquefied natural gas plant equipment and facilities including engine driven reciprocating natural gas compressors and ancillary equipment (pumps, heat exchangers, filters, instrumentation and controls, etc.), piping, boilers, valves, storage tanks, reciprocating air compressors, auxiliary generator, and heaters.[4] The majority of the 100 LNG facilities in operation within the U.S. are peak-shaving facilities used by utilities to store domestic natural gas production for gas-fired electric generation.[5] The remaining LNG facilities consist of LNG terminals located on the U.S. coast when liquefied natural gas is offloaded and regasified for distribution into the pipeline network.

Due to the highly automated nature of LNG terminals, operators and technicians will require highly advanced process training including intelligent field devices.

Trends

Figure 2. Primary Energy Consumption by Fuel, 1960-2030 (quadrillion Btu) Source: EIA, 2006 Outlook Presentation, 12/13/2005

The Energy Information Administration's Annual Energy Outlook 2006 states that "higher world oil prices are expected to result in a shift away from petroleum consumption and toward natural gas consumption in all sectors of the international energy market." (see footnote 2) However, in a recent presentation on this same report the EIA provided a diagram that seems to counter this statement (Figure 2).

Regardless, the amount of natural gas consumption is projected to increase steadily over this timeframe and since the vast majority of proven natural gas reserves are located outside of the United States, a steady increase in natural gas imports is expected. LNG imports and infrastructure is projected to increase from 0.6 trillion cubic feet in 2004 to 4.1 trillion cubic feet in 2025 (note this projection is down from 6.4 trillion cubic feet in last year's AEO report).

The report also states that "current high prices for natural gas are expected to accelerate the construction of new LNG terminal capacity, resulting in a significant increase in total U.S. LNG receiving capacity by 2015." (see footnote 2)

Several proposed LNG sites have had strong local opposition due to safety concerns. The U.S. Department of Transportation has established regulations for LNG facilities, but some have criticized the effectiveness of these regulations at protecting the public from hazards such as pool fires where a spill is ignited and flammable vapor clouds that can form if a spill is not ignited. Overall, however, LNG has a relatively strong safety record.

Timing

Figure 3. Natural Gas Wellhead Price 1970-2030 (2004 dollars per thousand cubic feet) Source: EIA, 2006 Outlook Presentation, 12/13/2005

The projected increase in U.S. LNG imports "is based largely on an assumption that domestic gas production will fail to keep pace with demand and that, as a result, natural gas prices can be sustained at a higher level of around U.S.$4 to U.S.$6 per MMBTU."[6] LNG becomes economically competitive to domestic gas supply when the price of domestic gas rises above $3.50 per MMBtu.[7] With the current price of natural gas is $7.07 per MMBtu,[8] LNG has become a competitive alternative. LNG is projected to maintain this price advantage over natural gas for the foreseeable future (Figure 3).

Construction of new LNG terminals is projected to slow after 2015. As indicated in Figure 1, U.S. net LNG imports are projected to total 4.4 trillion cubic in 2030 with a terminal capacity of 5.8 trillion cubic feet. (see footnote 2)

Relevance

LNG curriculum is relevant to community and technical colleges; however, there does not appear to be a high degree of employment opportunities in the near-term. Moreover, with an estimated start-up cost of $2.5-$3M,[9] investing in a new program may not be justified to satisfy the so few positions unless a college is already positioned with related equipment. Lamar Technical Institute's existing processing plant training may provide just such an opportunity.

Technology

Retinal angiography, also know as ophthalmic photography, is a sub-field of biomedical photography that records the structure of the eye using specialized equipment. According to the Ophthalmic Photographer´s Society:[1]

Ophthalmic photography is a highly specialized form of medical imaging dedicated to the study and treatment of disorders of the eye. It covers a very broad scope of photographic services incorporating many aspects of commercial and medical photography. But it is through the use of highly specialized equipment used to document parts of the eye like the cornea, iris and retina, that ophthalmic photography takes on its true identity.

The retina is the "film" of the eye. Images passing through the clear structures of the cornea and lens are focused there to give us our view of the world. Special instruments called fundus cameras, when used by skilled photographers, can document the condition of this miraculous anatomical structure.

When fundus photography is performed after the injection of a fluorescent dye into the bloodstream via a vein in the patient's arm, the procedure is called Fluorescein Angiography. With special colored filters, only the dye is photographed as it travels through the vessels in the retina. These studies, performed by ophthalmic photographers and interpreted by ophthalmologists, are used in differentiating one retinal disease from another and in determining appropriate courses of treatment.

Jobs

Certified Retinal Angiographer (CRA) is a designation given exclusively by the Ophthalmic Photographer´s Society (OPS). The certification program was established in 1978 and there are currently 600 CRAs in North America. Most CRAs work as ophthalmic technicians and ophthalmic photographers. According to the Ophthalmic Photographer´s Society:[2]

Certified Retinal Angiographer (CRA) designates an individual who has met the BOC [Board of Certification] standards of competence in fundus photography and retinal angiography.

The CRA is able to identify the anatomy of the ocular fundus and the structures through which the fundus is imaged. The CRA is skilled in single frame and sequential stereo fundus photography, and in rapid sequence fluorescein angiography. The CRA has an understanding of capture, processing and printing of retinal fluorescein angiograms in both digital and film media.

There is very little labor market information specifically related to ophthalmic photography. The closest job title is ophthalmic laboratory technician, which is a more general job and frequently does not involve ophthalmic photography. In Texas in 2002 there were 2,650 ophthalmic laboratory technicians. There are expected to be 2,950 in 2012. Between job growth and job replacement there are expected to be 90 openings each year 2002-2012.[3]

Nationally, the ophthalmic technician and biomedical photography positions have similar salary ranges of $25,000 to $55,000. According to salary.com, the median salary for biomedical photographers is $39,693 and the median salary for ophthalmic technicians is $37,367.

In a December 2005 study of their membership, OPS found that 19% of the respondents worked in university hospitals, 52% in private practice, 24% in hospitals and medical facilities, and the reminder were either independent contractors or other.

Skill Sets

In 2004 the Ophthalmic Photographer´s Society commissioned an extensive study which describes the "critical tasks required for competent, entry-level retinal angiographer practice."[4] The study was conducted to support the relevance and validity of the Society´s certification. Findings include an extensive analysis of job tasks and the relative importance of each task.

Based on this research and other data from OPS as well as job announcements for ophthalmic photographers, the knowledge, skills and abilities are as follows:

Knowledge--CRA candidates are tested on the following subjects:

• Anatomy and Physiology of the Eye
• Pathology of the Eye
• Pharmacology
• Patient Management
• General Film Photography
• General Digital Photography
• Data and Image Management
• Patient and Operator Safety
• Fundus Photography
• Fluorescein Angiography
• Indocyanine Green Angiography
• Optical Coherence Tomography
• Pharmacology

OPS assigns 44% of the CRA candidate´s certification score to fundus photography (22%) and fluorescein angiography (22%).

Skills--CRAs screen patients in terms of visual acuity testing, lensometry for clinical optics testing, keratometry for contact lenses, stereo acuity testing, automated refractometry for clinical optics testing, pupil assessment; gross external examination and eye drop installation.

They also apply electron or schioty tonometry, refractometry and/or retinoscopy for clinical optics testing, visual field testing (automated and/or non-automated), specular microscopy; fundamental photography, potential acuity testing(a-scan ultrasonography and introcular lens calculation).

CRAs also engage in patient education and counseling and conduct basic maintenance, and inventory control.

CRAs demonstrate proficiency in: history taking, ophthalmic patient services, lensometry, instrument maintenance and repair, special instruments and diagnostic techniques, advanced general medical knowledge, ocular motility, clinical optics, visual fields, contact lenses, advanced ocular pharmacology, advanced tonography and advanced colorvision.

Abilities--Responsibilities include organizing and prioritizing work to ensure completion in a timely manner. Ophthalmic photography requires the analytical ability to understand and apply complex ophthalmic procedures, follow detailed instructions from the ophthalmologist and interpersonal skills necessary to relate to patients in a sympathetic and tactful manner.

Trends

Ophthalmic photographers are not required to have certification and most learn on the job and through continuing education programs. The Bureau of Labor Statistic´s Occupational Handbook observes, "Most medical, dental and ophthalmic laboratory technicians learn their craft on the job; however, many employers prefer to hire those with formal training in a related field."[5] No data were provided to support this claim.

The field of biomedical photography is considered very competitive and is still a relatively small field. However, the job market is expected to expand and ophthalmic photography is identified as a particularly promising field.[6] There is no Texas labor market information specific to biomedical photography.

Timing

Although the field of ophthalmic photography is small and future growth is difficult to judge, there is interest in OPS in increasing the formalization and recognition of the field.

Relevance

There is currently no program at the community or technical college level specifically designed to prepare students to become a CRA. The closest related programs are the photography programs the at Rochester Institute of Technology and Brooks College in Santa Barbara, California. The Joint Commission of Allied Health Personnel in Ophthalmology does offer ophthalmic technician programs but only a small portion of their curriculum addresses ophthalmic photography. According to the OPS Education Chair, the society is currently compiling a list of related programs.

The OPS offers continuing education programs through annual conferences and through sponsorship of short courses offered by a number or associations and institutions.

Despite the fact that fluorescein angiography has been in use for four decades, according to OPS, there is very little formal education in the subject.

There is an ophthalmic technician program offered at El Paso Community College that is geared exclusively toward dispensing opticians and does not include any photographic or angiographic components. There appears to be no biomedical photography program at any Texas community or technical college.

There exists a clear and expressed need for qualified PSG technologists in the State of Texas. Some sleep clinics are hiring applicants with no previous patient care experience and providing on-the-job-training (OJT) for at least 4 months before a sleep tech can conduct a study. Moreover, the lack of qualified technologists has caused instances of inflated wages, could result in a higher percentage of improperly conducted tests, resulting in repeat sleep studies and additional cost, and increases the liability for mistakes.

Temple College has a THECB approved ATC in PSG and will be enrolling students in fall 2006. This is the third program in the nation to seek Committee on Accreditation for Respiratory Care (CoARC) approval for PSG and will likely be the first accredited PSG program in the State of Texas. Program director Bill Cornelius has discovered that the ATC configuration limits their potential student base considerably and they are now considering a one-year PSG Certificate option as well.

A PSG Certificate would enable students without an Associate Degree to obtain the necessary formal training to meet the expressed demands of sleep clinic operators and graduates would be eligible for BRPT board exams after 6 months instead of 18 months. A Certificate would escalate the training capacity for PSGTs in Texas, increase the accessibility of training to a wider audience of interested students, and provide Texas industry with the qualified PSG workforce they need to grow and remain competitive.

This is a unique approach in response to the industry demand clearly expressed by each of the three CTC PSG programs in the state. One potential drawback of a Certificate over an ATC or AAS could arise if the Texas Department of Health Services creates licensure requirements for PSGTs in Texas. This exact thing occurred 1 1/2 years ago for Respiratory Therapists. Many of these same RTs, now licensed through the state, have expressed an interest in PSG but because many do not posses an AAS there is no viable option for formal PSG training.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Electroocculogram (EOG)

Electromyogram (EMG)

Electrokardiogram - Electrocardiogram (EKG/ECG)

Respiratory Effort (piezo crystal effort sensor)

Oxygen saturation (Pulse oximeter)

Nerve Conduction Studies (NCS)

Evoked Potentials (EPs)

Autonomic Testing

Polysomnographic technologists are specialists who work in state-of-the-art sleep disorders centers. Technologists operate, monitor, and troubleshoot sophisticated computerized sleep equipment to collect and analyze physiologic patient data. Polysomnographic technologists also work closely with physicians and other sleep specialists participating in patient education and treatment plan coordination. Most polysomnographic technologists work 10- to 12-hour night shifts. This career choice should be made after careful consideration of the nature of the hours and the student's desire and ability to work the night shift.

PSG Related Technology

PSG Related Job Titles

PSG Employment Outlook

PSG Certification

Interpretation of test results:

Alvin Community College

McLennan Community College

Temple College

Texas State University

Northern Essex

Madison Area Technical College

Tallahassee Community College

The Institute of Sleep Medicine

California College for Health Sciences

Volunteer State Community College

St. Louis Community College

Moraine Valley Community College

Orange Coast College

Minneapolis Community & Technical College

Ohio Cuyahoga Community College

Western Wisconsin Technical College

University College of the Cariboo

Amarillo

Austin

Dallas

El Paso

Fort Worth

Garland

Houston

Humble

Midland

Temple

• Introduction to Wind Energy
• Introduction to Wind Turbine Operations
• Power Generation and Distribution
• Airfoils and Composites
• Wind Turbine Construction & Site Location

Texas is already the second largest producer of wind energy in the United States (California is the first) and the passage of SB 20 by the 79th Legislature of Texas may eventually make Texas the highest producer in the nation. (A complete list of existing wind farms and publicly announced wind farm developments in the State of Texas is provided at the end of this technology brief.) Based on the MW targets set by SB 20, the amount of renewable energy production in Texas will increase steadily in the coming years, and the majority of this new production capacity is anticipated to come from wind.

“The Alternative Energy Institute (AEI) at West Texas A&M University constructed the improved resolution Texas wind map as a refinement of the PNL map. It incorporates additional ground exposure information. A hilltop, for example, will experience stronger winds than the base of a valley. The AEI used elevation and prevailing wind data to compute exposure and reclassify wind power throughout the state.”